Ghani Khan had written a little skittish poem about Pathans, that depicts there temprament given below:
The great potmaker of fate was sitting in heaven.
This great potter of fate was making a donkey,
when the order came to make a Khan.
So the potter cut off its tail and sculpted its ears,
on its forehead he put a spot of temper
and in the donkeys brain he put the disease
of being ahead of everyone, being a leader, and
then he put a beautiful turban on his head and
shooed him towards the world.
ETHNOLOGY:
Different
hypotheses have been suggested about the origin of the Pukhtoons.
Khawaja Niamatullah describes them as descendants of Jews, connecting
them with the lost ten tribes of Israel. This theory of the Semitic
origin of the Pukhtoons has been supported by some Pukhtoon writers,
including Hafiz Rahmat Khan, Afzal Khan Khattak and Qazi Attaullah Khan.
A number of orientalists like H.W. Bellew, Sir William Jones and Major
Raverty have also subscribed to this view on the basis of Pukhtoon
physiogonomy, and the striking resemblance of facial features between
Pukhtoons and Jews. They believe that the prevalence of biblical names,
certain customs and superstitions, especially smearing of the door post
and walls of the house with blood of sacrificial animals, further
substantiates this theory. But these presumptions do not hold good in
view of the fact that resemblance in features and certain
characteristics do not provide a scientific criterion for the ethnology
of a race or a section of people. This can equally be said about the
Kashmiris and certain other tribes who can hardly be distinguished from
Pukhtoons in physique, colour and complexion. Similarly a scrutiny of
the social institutions of the Arabs of the Middle Ages and present day
Pukhtoons would lead one to believe that Pukhtoons are not different
from them in their social organisation.
Syed Bahadur
Shah Zafar Kaka Khel in his well written book "PUKHTANA" and Sir Olaf
Caroe in his book "The Pathans" place little reliance on Niamatullah's
theory of the Semitic origin of the Pukhtoons and say that his account
of the Pukhtoons suffers from historical inaccuracies. To disprove the
assertion that the Pukhtoon tribes had embraced Islam en-bloc after the
return of Qais Abdul Rashid from Medina, the accounts of Al-Beruni and
Al-Utbi, the contemporary historians of Mahmud of Ghazna, establish
"that four centuries later than the time of Qais the Province of Kabul
had not been Islamized and this was achieved under the Ghaznavides. The
Hindu Shahiya Kingdom of Jaipal extended almost to Kabul, Mahmud had to
fight against infidel Afghans of the Sulaiman mountains". Even Prithvi
Raj had a cavalry of Afghans in the battle of Tarian against Mohammad
Ghori. Other writers, after a careful examination of the physical
anthropology of the Pukhtoons say that difference in features of the
various Pukhtoons point to the fact that they must have "mingled with
races who passed through their territory to conquer Hindustan".
Khawaja
Niamatullah's theory has further been put to a serious test by
prominent linguists who maintain that Pushto bears no resemblance to
Hebrew or other Aramaic languages and the Pukhtoons' language, Pashto,
belongs to the family of the Eastern group of Iranian languages. Mr.
Ahmad Ali Kohzad and some other Afghan historians, lending support to
the Aryan origin of the Pukhtoons, say that the Pakhat of the Rig Veda
are the Pukhtoons of today. It is a fact that the North West Frontier of
Pakistan has, perhaps been involved with more foreign invasions in the
course of history than any other country of Asia. Each horde seems to
have left its mark on the Pukhtoons who absorbed the traits of invading
forces, "predominantly of Turks, Iranians and Mongols".
According
to Khawaja Niamatullah the Pukhtoons embraced Islam in the first
quarter of the 7th century when the Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him)
sent his emissaries in all directions to invite the people to the fold
of Islam. One such messenger is stated to have been sent to Qais Abdur
Rashid, who is claimed to be the ancestor of the Pukhtoons, through
Khalid bin Walid. In response to Khalid's invitation, Qais hurried to
the Holy land and as a result of the sublime teachings of the Holy
Prophet (Peace be upon him) embraced Islam in Medina. After his return
to Ghore, his whole tribe followed him in the Muslim faith. But due to
weak evidence, missing links and wide gaps this theory has aroused
suspicion in the minds of scholars.
If the origin of a
race can be determined on the basis of customs and traditions then
Pukhtoon would be closer to Arabs. The study of Arabian and Pukhtoon
society presents a remarkable resemblance particularly in their tribal
organisation and social usages. Both possess the same virtues and
characteristics. To both hospitality is one of the finest virtues,
retribution a sacred duty and bravery an essential pre-requisite for an
honourable life. Love of independence, courage, endurance, hospitality
and revenge were the supreme virtues of pre-Islamic Arabs. These very
attributes also form the basis of the Pukhtoon code of honour and anyone
who repudiates them is looked down by the society. A Pukhtoon is nearer
to an Arab in his tribal organisation. Like an Arab tent, every
Pukhtoon's house represents a family, an encampment of Arab tents forms a
hay and a cluster of a few houses constitute a village in tribal areas.
Members of one hay form a clan in Arabia and a Khel (which is an Arabic
word meaning association or company) is the basis of the Pukhtoon's
tribal organisation. A number of kindred clans grouped together make a
qabila in Arabia and a tribe in the Pukhtoon borderland. Even the Pashto
script resembles the Arabic script in essence. The Arabs held in great
esteem four moral virtues, viz Ziyafah or hospitality hamasah or
fortitude, muruah or manliness and courage and ird or honour.
The
Pathans are brave, courageous, hospitable and generous and these
attributes are considered as pillars of the Pukhtoon code of honour or
Pukhtoonwali. The Pathans like the Arabs also believe in fire and sword
for all their adversaries. This was the reason that they fought tooth
and nail against the non-Muslim rulers of the sub-continent whether
Sikhs or Feringi as the Britishers were called.
The
position of a tribal Malik who plays an important role in tribal
politics is similar to that of an Arabian Sheikh. The qualifications of a
tribal Malik, such as seniority in age, qualities of head and heart and
character as courage, wisdom and sagacity etc. are not different from
an Arab Sheikh. Like a Sheikh, a tribal Malik follows the consensus of
opinion. He is required to consult the heads of the families or village
council while making any decision with regard to future relations with a
village or tribe. Darun Nadwa was the centre of activity of the
pre-Islamic Arabs and the Pukhtoons' Hujra is also not different from it
in its functions. All matters relating to war, peace, future relations
with neighbouring tribes and day to day problems used to be discussed in
Darun Nadwa. Similarly, all tribal affairs connected with the tribe are
discussed in the Hujra.
Hospitality is one of the sublime
features of the Pukhtoons and pre-Islamic Arabs were also renowned for
their hospitality and for affording asylum to strangers. They would
share the last crumb of their bread with a guest and protect him from
all harm so long as he was under their roof. Similarly, Pukhtoons regard
hospitality as a "sacred duty and safety of the guest as inviolable".
It is a serious violation of their established norms to hurt a man who
enters their village as a guest. In the pre-independence days they
provided asylum to all and sundry, including the proclaimed offenders
wanted by the British Government in cases of a criminal nature in the
settled districts. Similarly the Arabs the right of asylum considered
sacred and was rigidly respected regardless of the crime of the refugee.
The
spirit of revenge of the Pukhtoons is not different from that of the
Arabs. Blood according to the law of the desert called for blood and no
chastisement could satisfy an Arab other than wreaking vengeance on his
enemy. Similarly, the hills of the Pukhtoon highlanders vibrate with
echoes of retribution till the insult is avenged. As a matter of fact,
the society of both the Arabs and the Pukhtoons is inspired by a strong
feeling of muruwwa, virility or a quality to defend one's honour (ird).
There are several anecdotes of revenge resulting in long blood feuds for
generations. The Basus war between Banu Bakr and Banu Taghlib in Arabia
lasted for about 40 years whereas tribal disputes between Gar and Samil
factions of the Pukhtoons continued for decades. Pukhtoons like Arabs
are conscious of their racial superiority. An Arab would boast of being a
Quraish and a Pukhtoon would assert his superiority by saying, Am I not
a Pukhtoon"?
The customs regarding giving protection to weaker
neighbours is also common between Arabs and Pukhtoons. A weaker tribe in
Arabia would seek the protection of a powerful tribe by means of Khuwah
and a weaker Pukhtoon tribe would ensure its security by offering
"Lokhay" to its strong neighbouring tribe. The custom of "Lokhay
Warkawal" is still prevalent among Afridi and Orakzai tribes of Tirah. A
similarity can also be found in their customs relating to birth,
marriage and death etc. Certain superstitions are also common between
the Arabs and the Pukhtoons. Both believe in all kinds of invisible
beings, wear amulets as a safeguard against the evil eye and believe in
sooth sayers and fortune tellers.
Struggle for Freedom
When
Sindh and Multan were conquered by the Muslim army under the inspiring
leadership of the young General Mohammad bin Qasim, in 711 A.D. this
part of the South Asian Sub-Continent was still ruled by a Hindu Shahi
dynasty. Subaktagin was the first Muslim ruler who crossed swords with
Jaipal, a powerful ruler of the Hindu Shahi dynasty in 997. Later, the
Muslims under the command of his illustrious son Mahmud of Ghazna
invaded the sub-continent as many as seventeen times and fought fierce
battles against Jaipal, his son Anandpal and other Hindu rulers and
Rajas of Northern India. He was followed by Shahabud Din Mohammad Ghori,
Qutb-ud-Din Aibak and other sultans and finally the great Mughals who
ruled the sub-continent for centuries. Things, however, began to change
after the death of Aurangzeb Alamgir, the last powerful ruler of the
Mughal dynasty. The internal disputes, court intrigues and feuds of
rival factions weakened the Mughal Central Government and the
centrifugal tendencies of the Mughal Governors sounded the death knell
of the mighty Mughal Empire.
The way was thus paved for
the rise of Ranjit Singh, who eventually extended his military sway from
Lahore upto the foothills of Khyber in the first quarter of the 19th
century. The Sikh advance was, however, checked by the tribesmen who did
not allow them to encroach upon their independence. The Pukhtoons
fought several battles against them and finally measured their strength
of arms with the militant Sikhs in a battle fought within the environs
of Jamrud in 1837. In this pitched battle the Sikhs sustained heavy
casualties. It was here that their famous General Hari Singh Nalwa, was
killed.
Twelve years later the superior and disciplined forces of
the British defeated the Sikhs in successive battles and annexed the
whole of the territory beyond the Indus river and ruled over the North
West Frontier for about a century.
The Pukhtoons resisted
violently all attempts by the British to subjugate or turn them into
docile and obedient members of an enslaved community. They offered
stubborn resistance to the British forces and Inspite of their meager
means and resources, the Pukhtoons carried on an un-ending war against
them for the preservation of their liberty. The British, proud of their
glory and might, sent about one hundred expeditions one after the other
against the Pukhtoons to subdue them by force but they did not yield to
the enemy's military might. According to Col. H.C. Wylly 62 military
expeditions were despatched against the tribesmen between 1849-1908,
besides every day small skirmishes. These included the famous Ambela
campaign 1863, the Black Mountain expedition 1868, the Miranzai
expedition 1891, the Hassanzai expedition 1894, the Dir and Chitral
expedition 1895, the Tirah campaign 1897, and the Mahsud-Waziri
expeditions 1897. As a result of this aggressive policy the whole
frontier, from Malakand to Waziristan, flared up in revolt against the
British in 1897.
The frontier rising of 1897 engaged about 98000
trained and well equipped British Indian forces in a grim struggle.
According to Col. H.D. Hutchison, the approximate strength of the Tirah
expeditionary force alone was "1010 British Officers, 10,882 British
troops, 491 native officers, 22,123 native troops, 197 hospital
Assistants, 179 clerks, 19,558 followers, 8000 horses, 18,384 mules and
ponies and 1440 hospital riding ponies". But to these figures, he says,
"must be added an enormous number of camels, carts, ponies etc working
on the long line of communication with Kohat and gradually brought into
use as needs increased and the roads were improved". The British forces
suffered 1150 casualties during the Tirah expedition. Similar was the
fate of other expeditions as well. The operations against Mohmand in
1915-16, and Wazirs and Mahsuds between 1917-1920 and 1936 Waziri
campaign also deserves special mention. In 1917 an arduous campaign was
undertaken against the Mahsuds and an aeroplane was made use of for the
first time in Waziristan. In 1936 the dales and mountains of Waziristan
resounded with the echoes of Jehad. The main cause of the war was the
marriage of Islam Bibi (a Hindu Girl of Bannu who was named Islam Bibi
after conversion to Islam) with a Muslim. She was later on returned to
her parents in accordance with the decision of the British law court.
The Government sent over 30,000 well equipped army to curb the
activities of the tribal lashkars in Waziristan but it met with no or
little success. "By December 1937", says Authur Swinson, "when the
40,000 British and Indian troops pulled back on Peshawar, the situation
was no better than it had been in January, and in 1938 more fighting was
to ensue." The expenditure on the Frontier war and "the burden on the
Indian tax payer was enormous and between 1924 and 1939 it totalled
11,2000,000 pounds". But the long range heavy guns and air bombardment
did not dishearten the tribesmen and they continued their intermittent
struggle against an imperialist power till the dawn of Independence.
"Throughout the hundred and odd years of the British rule over the North
West Frontier, Waziristan was always one of the most heavily garrisoned
areas anywhere in the world. Seething with political unrest and
ceaseless guerilla warfare, this was the testing place - the crucible of
valour and efficiency for generations of British soldiers, statesmen
and civil servants". The British invariably deputed their ablest
military and civil officers to serve in these areas which had become the
best training ground for the British soldiers. In fact, the British
soldiers had never before experienced such tough and arduous life as on
the Frontier. This is well reflected from a stanza of Mr. Kipling's
"Frontier Arithmetic"
A scrimmage in a Border Station
A center down some dark defile,
Two thousand pounds of education
Drops to a ten rupee Jezail
As
the freedom movement gained momentum in the Sub-Continent, the
tribesmen in general and the Pukhtoons of NWFP in particular rallied
round the dynamic leadership of the Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah and
under the green banner of the Muslim League for the establishment of an
independent Muslim State. They resisted the insidious temptations of
the Hindu Congress leaders. They gave vent to their feelings of
indignation at the time of Pandat Jawahar Lal Nehru's visit to Khyber,
Malakand and North Waziristan Agencies in autumn of 1946. They staged
violent demonstrations against the visiting Congress dignitary and the
then Head of the Interim Government of India and thereby proved to him
their feelings of love for a Muslim state and un-shakeable confidence in
the able leadership of the Quaid-e-Azam. Their efforts and sacrifices,
in common with the rest of the Mussalmans in the Sub-Continent to carve
out a sovereign and independent Islamic State for themselves were
ultimately crowned with success. Pakistan, their life-long dream,
appeared on the map of the world and as dedicated and patriotic citizens
of Pakistan, the tribesmen pledged themselves to stand by the rest of
their brethren in defending its integrity and the solidarity of its
people.
The Pukhtoon's devotion to Pakistan - their homeland, was
warmly appreciated by the Quaid-e-Azam, who as the first Governor
General of Pakistan ordered a complete immediate withdrawal of all
troops from tribal areas hitherto stationed by an alien Government. The
so called ferocious warriors turned in no time into peaceful citizens as
if by a magic wand, passionately interested in their own progress and
the well being of Pakistan. The governance of the tribal belt is no
longer a problem for Pakistan; on the contrary the government is
actively associating tribesmen in the progress and prosperity of the
country. It is one of the cherished goals of the Pakistan Government to
work for the socio-economic uplift of the tribesmen who had been
deliberately ignored by alien rulers. A number of public utility schemes
aiming at socio-economic, educational and industrial uplift have
already been completed while many more are being speedily implemented.
The
tribal area which was at one time a scene of wild affrays is now
completely peaceful. "At present", says Ian Stephens, "the irritant of
the infidel British regime having withdrawn itself, the Frontier is
remarkably peaceful. During journeys, since the withdrawal, along the
Pakistan side of it, in 1948, 1951 and again this year (1961), I have
been amazed by the change. Within my extensive zone of travel there were
no hostilities, actual or apprehended between the Frontier Corps or the
Army or tribal lashkars, as in former days. Nor did I see the least
sign of Pukhtoonistan activities". A similar opinion has been expressed
by Mr. H.C. Taussig in the `Eastern World'. "There is no doubt" he say
"that the situation has vastly improved, at least in some areas which it
was unsafe to travel by day and impossible by night, I was able to move
freely without escort, at any time".
Appreciating the pace of
development in tribal areas in the wake of peaceful conditions the world
famous historian, Professor Arnold J. Toynbee says "Pakistan does
pursue a forward policy on the frontier and a vigorous one, but its key
instruments are not weapons of war, they are dispensaries, schools,
sports, and, above all, economic development. This last instrument is
supremely important, because it gives the tribesmen opportunities for
finding alternate means of livelihood to the raiding which has been
their traditional recourse". The improvement in communications has
revolutionized the means of transportation as well. THE camels and
donkeys are gradually being replaced by motorized conveyances. "In this
northern world round Peshawar", says Professor Toynbee, "times are
changing. Not so long ago the traveller through the Khyber Pass had to
pay tribute to the Afridis, or it would be the worse for him. Passing
emperors have defied the Afridis and have lived or sometimes not lived
to regret it. Today we can travel through the pass and back by the
Afridi Bus Service and the tribute has turned into a fare. In old days a
tribe used to measure its strength by the number of its rifles. Today
it measures it by the number of its buses and lorries".
Sources of Income
The
Pukhtoons are chiefly employed in agriculture but their agricultural
pursuits are limited owing to the lack of culturable land. The patches
of cultivable land in hilly tracts and some open valleys do not produce
sufficient food-grains to meet their food requirements. In addition to
tilling the available land, tribesmen tend cattle, including herds of
goats and sheep, camels and cows.
If, on the one hand,
the tribesmen were economically dependent on the British, on the other,
all kinds of trade in tribal areas had been monopolized by Hindus and
Sikhs. They had opened shops in the centrally located places and big
villages and every tribesman was their customer. A large number of
tribesmen would go to Bombay in search of employment while others would
join the Border Military Police (later called the Frontier Constabulary)
and the army. Certain sections of the tribesmen would sell firewood and
timber to the people of the cities, while others took up some other
petty trade. But among the tribesmen, the Adam Khel Afridis of the Kohat
Pass had a flare for trade. They were traders and carriers of salt at
the time of the advent of the British in the frontier. They used to
carry salt from the mines of Kohat District to Swat, Bajaur and other
parts of the NWFP.
They also engaged themselves in a thriving
and lucrative arms trade and later started manufacturing fire-arms in
their factories. Other tribesmen emulated their example and set up arms
factories at Illam Gudar (Khyber Agency), Nawagai (Bajaur Agency) and
Kaniguram (South Waziristan Agency). The Adam Khel Afridis of the Kohat
Pass showed the most extraordinary ingenuity in devising, making and
installing different kinds of indigenous machines for turning out
various component parts of rifles. In the beginning of the 20th century
there were about half a dozen workshops in Darra but later this industry
rapidly expanded to every glen and village. They were also famous gun
runners and carried on arms trade with the Persian Gulf countries. In
this way they supplemented the arms pile of the tribesmen and furnished
them with the latest weapons at reasonable rates. At present the Adam
Khel Afridis are producing such fine specimen of revolvers, pistols and
rifles with their crude implements that they can hardly be distinguished
from those of European-make. It can be confidently said that nowhere in
the world has a similar feat been performed by un-educated men with no
training or experience of mass production methods.
The
arms manufacturing industry was the main source of the Afridis' income
during the British rule. But conditions have changed considerably since
the creation of Pakistan. The increased interest of the national
Government in the welfare of the tribesmen and the growing communication
and interaction between the tribesmen and the people of other parts of
Pakistan, have revolutionized their socio-economic life. Soon after
Independence the Pakistan Government launched a number of schemes of
public utility in the tribal areas to ameliorate the lot of the people,
provide them with amenities of life, increase employment opportunities
and make them equal partners in progress and prosperity. The Government
provided them with every incentive to take to respectable pursuits. As a
result of this encouragement, the tribesmen took to commerce and soon
commercial centres sprang up at Sakha Kot, Batkhela (Malakand Agency),
Yekka Ghund (Mohmand Agency), Bara, Jamrud and Landi Kotal (Khyber
Agency), Parachinar, Sadda (Kurram Agency), Miran Shah (North Waziristan
Agency), Wana (South Waziristan Agency) and Darra Adam Khel (Frontier
Region Kohat) where business transactions of hundreds and thousands of
rupees are made every day.
While millions of rupees
were being spent by the British on the highways to subjugate the
tribesmen, nothing substantial was spent on the improvement of their
social condition. But the Pakistan Government, fully aware of the
problems of tribesmen, embarked upon a programme to combat illiteracy,
want, misery and disease. The Quaid-d-Azam took a keen interest in the
development of the tribal areas. Addressing a historic tribal gathering
at Peshawar, the Founder of Pakistan declared "Pakistan wants to help
you and make you as far as it lies in our power, self reliant and self
sufficient and to help your educational, social and economic uplift and
not to be left as you are, depending on annual doles". The Government
opened the doors of employment to tribesmen in all spheres of national
life. Quotas were allocated for the tribal candidates in the services,
and a relaxation of three years was allowed to them in the age limit
prescribed for various services. The Frontier Constabulary and Frontier
Corps are now almost mainly manned by tribesmen and a respectable share
of employment has also been given to them in the regular Armed Forces
and other services. This liberal policy has solved their economic
problems to a considerable extent. Nowadays scores of tribesmen are
engaged in business, trade, commerce, Government and private services
and other respectable professions and are serving the country with a
spirit of devotion and dedication. In short the tribesmen from Bajaur to
Waziristan, with their energy and inherent spirit of enterprise, are
forging ahead in every activity of life.
